Part One
Specialisation can be seen as a response to the problem of an increasing accumulation of scientific knowledge. By splittingup the subject matter into smaller units, one man could continue to handle the information and use it as the basis for furtherresearch. But specialisation was only one of a series of related developments in science affecting the process ofcommunication. Another was the growing professionalisation of scientific activity.
No clear-cut distinction can be drawn between professionals and amateurs in science: exceptions can be found to any rule.Nevertheless, the word 'amateur' does carry a connotation that the person concerned is not fully integrated into the scientificcommunity and, in particular, may not fully share its values. The growth of specialisation in the nineteenth century, with itsconsequent requirement of a longer, more complex training, implied greater problems for amateur participation in science.The trend was naturally most obvious in those areas of science based especially on a mathematical or laboratory training,and can be illustrated in terms of the development of geology in the United Kingdom.
A comparison of British geological publications over the last century and a half reveals not simply an increasing emphasis onthe primacy of research, but also a changing definition of what constitutes an acceptable research paper. Thus, in the
nineteenth century, local geological studies represented worthwhile research in their own right; but, in the twentieth century,local studies have increasingly become acceptable to professionals only if they incorporate, and reflect on, the wider
geological picture. Amateurs, on the other hand, have continued to pursue local studies in the old way. The overall result hasbeen to make entrance to professional geological journals harder for amateurs, a result that has been reinforced by the
widespread introduction of refereeing, first by national journals in the nineteenth century and then by several local geologicaljournals in the twentieth century. As a logical consequence of this development, separate journals have now appearedaimed mainly towards either professiona
l or amateur readership. A rather similar process of differentiation has led to professional geologists coming togethernationally within one or two specific societies, whereas the amateurs have tended either to remain in local societies or tocome together nationally in a different way.
Although the process of professionalisation and specialisation was already well under way in British geology during thenineteenth century, its full consequences were thus delayed until the twentieth century. In science generally, however, thenineteenth century must be reckoned as the crucial period for this change in the structure of science.
1. The growth of specialisation in the 19th century might be more clearly seen in sciences such as ________.[A] sociology and chemistry [B] physics and psychology[C] sociology and psychology [D] physics and chemistry2. We can infer from the passage that ________.
[A] there is little distinction between specialisation and professionalisation[B] amateurs can compete with professionals in some areas of science[C] professionals tend to welcome amateurs into the scientific community[D] amateurs have national academic societies but no local ones
3. The author writes of the development of geology to demonstrate ________.[A] the process of specialisation and professionalisation[B] the hardship of amateurs in scientific study[C] the change of policies in scientific publications[D] the discrimination of professionals against amateurs4. The direct reason for specialisation is ________.
[A] the development in communication [B] the growth of professionalisation[C] the expansion of scientific knowledge [D] the splitting up of academic societies
Unit 8 （2001） Part 1重点词汇：
1.specialisation（专业化）即special+is（e）+ation，special（特别的；额外的），-ise动词后缀（specialise即v.专业化），-ation名词后缀；specialist（专家；专科医⽣）←special+ist后缀表“⼈”。Love is a special affection for a man or a
woman, which is stronger than that for any other person.爱情是对⼀个男⼈或⼥⼈的特殊的好感，它⽐对其他任何⼈的好感都强烈。
2.response （回复；响应）是respond的名词形式。The sartorial artist no less than the sculptor, the painter and the musiciandreams of creations that will awaken a response in the soul of the world.好裁缝跟雕塑家、画家和⾳乐家⼀样，梦想着能在世⼈灵魂中引起反响的作品。
3.accumulation（积累，堆积）即accumulate+ation，accumulate（v.积累，堆积），-ation名词后缀。University are full ofknowledge; the freshmen bring a little in and the seniors take none away, and knowledge accumulates.⼤学⾥充满了知识，新⽣带进来⼀些，⾼年级学⽣则⼀点也不带⾛，于是知识就积累了下来。Books are the ever-burning lamps of accumulatedwisdom.书籍是积累智慧的明灯。
4.professionalisation（职业化）即professional+is（e）+ation，professional（职业的；职业⼈员），-ise动词后缀
（professionalise即v.职业化），-ation名词后缀。In love woman are professionals, men are amateurs.在恋爱中⼥⼦是专业者，男⼦是业余者。5.clear-cut 明确的，清晰的。
6.amateur（业余的；业余爱好者）可记谐⾳“爱慕它”，“业余爱好者”选择某专业必定是“爱慕它”。Every artist was once anamateur.所有的艺术家都曾经是业余爱好者。amateur — a young man who, when flattering women, is afraid of overdoing it业余选⼿——奉承⼥⼈时怕做过头的年轻⼈。
7.distinction （差别，区分）即distinct+ion，distinct（清楚的，明显的），-ion名词后缀。同根词：extinct灭绝（因为有x⽽省略s）；instinct本能。Success seems to be that which forms the distinction between confidence and conceit.成功似乎是形成⾃信与⾃负区别的东西。
8.connotation （涵义）即con+not（e）+ation，con-前缀“⼀起”，note记录，-ation名词后缀，“所有东西都被⼀起记录在其中”→涵义。
9.integrate（使成为⼀体）←integr完整+ate
10.Participation（参加；分享）即Parti+cip+ation，Parti（=Part），cip（=cap）抓（参captive，2003年Text 3），-ation名词后缀，“抓取其中⼀部分”→分享；动词为Participate←Parti+cip+ate。We Participate in a tragedy; at a comedy we only look.悲剧我们参加，喜剧我们仅仅观看。11.in terms of 依据；⽤……措辞。
12.reveal?（v.展现；揭⽰；泄露）即re+veal，re-前缀（=away），veal（=veil）⾯纱，“揭开⾯纱”→展⽰。A person revealshis character by nothing so clearly as the joke he resents.没有什么⽐⼀个⼈所反感的笑话更能显露他的为⼈。If you revealyour secrets to the wind, you should not blame the wind for revealing them to the trees.你如果把秘密泄露给风，就不应责怪风把秘密泄露给树。
13.emphasis（强调，重点）可看作em+phasis，em-前缀“强调”，phasis看作是phase（阶段）的复述形式，于是“在各阶段⾥最值得强调的”→强调。I sometime wish that people would put a little more emphasis upon the observance of the law thanthey do upon its enforcement.有时候我但愿⼈们多把重点放在遵守法律上，⽽⾮强调其实施。
14.primacy （⾸要，⾸位）即prim（e）+acy，prime⾸要的，-acy名词后缀，primacy与privacy（隐私）⼀字母之差，“隐私”是最“⾸要”的。
15.definition（定义）即defin（e）+ition，define（下定义；限定）-ition名词后缀。It is almost a definition of a gentleman tosay that he is one who never inflicts pain.说⼀个⼈从不给⼈造成痛苦，这⼏乎是下了⼀个关于君⼦的定义。
16.represent（v.描述；代表）←re+present。Books only Partially represent their authors.图书只是部分地体现了作者。17.reflect （v.反射；反映；思考）←re回+flect弯曲。There are two ways of spreading light: To be the candle, or the mirrorthat reflects it.散布光的⽅法有两种：当蜡烛或者当反射烛光的镜⼦。Who reflects too much will accomplish little.思虑过多者⼀事难成。
18.referee（仲裁者v.仲裁）←refer+ee。
19.separate（分离的v.分离）←se+par+ate，se-前缀“分离”，par看作Part“分离”，-ate后缀。同前缀词：select（v.选择a.精选
的）←se+lect选。You can't separate peace from freedom because no one can be at peace unless he has his freedom.你⽆法将安宁与⾃由分开，因为得不到⾃由谁都不会安宁。
20.delay （v.n.耽搁，延迟）看作de+lay，de-向下，lay放，把事情暂时“放下”→耽搁。Never delay that should be done todayuntil tomorrow.不要把今天应做的事推迟到明天。
21.reckon （v.认为；估算）看作re+ckon，re-前缀“反复”，ckon谐⾳“啃”，题⽬太难了，需要“re啃”才能“估算”出答案。I
reckon being ill as one of the great pleasures of life, provided one is not too ill and is not obliged to work till one is better.我把⽣病当作⼈⽣⼀⼤乐趣，只要病得不太严重，并且在好转之前不被要求⼯作。To sensible men, every day is a day ofreckoning.对明智的⼈来说，每⼀天的时间都要精打细算。
22.crucial（极重要的，决定性的）即cruc+ial，cruc词根（=cross），-ail形容词后缀，“处于⼗字路⼝的”→关键的。
23.psychology（⼼理学）←psycho+logy，psycho词根“⼼理”，-logy后缀“……学”。The purpose of psychology is to give us acompletely different idea of the things we know best.⼼理学的⽤途是告诉我们对最熟悉事物的完全不同的观念。24.in one's own right 凭⾃⾝条件；25.under way 在进⾏中。难句解析：
① No clear-cut distinction can be drawn between professionals and amateurs in science: exceptions can be found to anyrule. Nevertheless, the word \"amateur\" does carry a connotation that the person concerned is not fully integrated into thescientific commUnity and, in Particular, may not fully share its values.
先看前⾯的句⼦的主⼲是No... distinction can be drawn between...，冒号后⾯的内容是进⼀步说明前⾯的观点。在第⼆个句⼦中，⼀上来就有⼀个转折词nevertheless，表⽰语意的转折，其主句是the word \"amateur\" does carry a connotation，后⾯有⼀个同位语从句，⾥⾯有两个并列谓语。
注意nevertheless表⽰转折，其后的信息与其前⾯的信息意思相反，前⾯讲⼆者没有很明显的区别，后⾯便说业余和专业就是不⼀样。其次要看清the word \"amateur\" DOES carry a connotation⽽⾮DOES NOT。
② The trend was naturally most obvious in those areas of science based especially on a mathematical or laboratory training,and can be illustrated in terms of the development of geology in the United Kingdom.
两个分句有同⼀个主语，即the trend，两个谓语为was obvious和can be illustrated。前⼀个分句中based especially on amathematical or laboratory training修饰areas of science。
注意be illustrated的⽤法，这⾥是“举例说明，例证说明”的意思；另外in terms of是“就某事来说，以某事为例”的意思。③ A comparison of British geological publications over the last century and a half reveals not simply an increasing emphasison the primacy of research, but also a changing definition of what constitutes an acceptable research paper.
本句的主语是a comparison of British geological publications over the last century and a half（中⼼词为a comparison），谓语是reveals，宾语主体结构是not simply... but also...所连接的两个并列宾语，注意宾语emphasis和definition前都有分词来修饰。
an increasing emphasis on the primacy of research译为“对科研的重要性的强调不断攀升”，a changing definition of whatconstitutes an acceptable research paper译为“⼀篇过得去的科研论⽂创作标准也有所变化”，其中what指代the elementsthat。
④ The overall result has been to make entrance to professional geological journals harder for amateurs, a result that hasbeen reinforced by the widespread introduction of refereeing, first by national journals in the nineteenth century and then byseveral local geological journals in the twentieth century.
全句的主⼲结构是The... result has been to do sth.。注意逗号后⾯只是⼀个名词性的短语，其核⼼词是a result，可以被看成是前⾯句⼦主语的同位语，在其内部主要是⼀个长的定语从句，⽽定语从句中⼜有两个并列的状语first by..., and then by...。entrance⼊⼝，此处指发表⽂章，进⼊专业圈⼦。reinforce增强，也就是使难度更⾼。本句的理解重点在于理顺句⼦结构，要看到在第⼀个逗号之后没有动词了，可以⼀层⼀层地把这个名词短语分解开。
⑤ A rather similar process of differentiation has led to professional geologists coming together nationally within one or twospecific societies, whereas the amateurs have tended either to remain in local societies or to come together nationally in adifferent way.
这是⼀个并列关系的并列句，两个分句由whereas（⽽）连接，说明了两种情况，前⾯是在说professional，⽽后⾯说
amateurs。
coming together nationally within one or two specific societies理解为“组成⼀到两个全国性的专科学术社团”。试题解析：1. 【正确答案】 [D]
根据第⼆段第三、四句，19世纪开始的专门化要求更长时间、更复杂的培训，⽇益增长的专门化给参与科学活动的业余爱好者带来了更⼤的问题。在特别是以数学和实验为基础的那些科学领域⾥，这⼀倾向⾃然表现得最为明显，英国地质学领域的发展充分地说明了这⼀点。
在这四个选择项中，虽然没有提到地质学，但是，众所周知，就19世纪⽽⾔，物理学和化学均是以数学和实验作为基础的科学，因此[D]是正确答案。2. 【正确答案】[B]
意为：业余研究者可以在某些科学领域与专业研究者相匹敌。根据第三段，在20世纪，局部的研究（local studies）只有在能被纳⼊并反映出更⼴泛研究框架的时候，才为专业研究者所接受。这说明，某些⽅⾯的研究是为专业研究者所认可的。第⼆段还提到，⽬前并存着分别以业余研究者和专业研究者为对象的两种杂志，专业地质学家组成了全国性的⼀两个协会，⽽业余研究者则通常是或者参加本地的研究协会，或者也以不同的⽅式结成全国性的组织。这些都说明了业余研究的不可或缺性以及与职业研究并存状况。
A意为：专门化和专业化过程⼏乎没有区别。根据本⽂，专门化过程（specialisation）和专业化过程
（professionalisation）实质上是同⼀个过程，即：研究领域的专门化带来了研究⼈员的专业化，⼀个是针对研究对象⽽⾔，另⼀个是针对研究者⽽宫，⼆者同时发⽣，不可⽐较。C不对。根据第三段第四句，专业研究者对业余研究者甚⾄还有排挤的倾向。D不对。参阅本题对选择项[B]的解释。3. 【正确答案】 [A]
参阅第⼆段第三、四句并第51题题解。请特别注意第四句中illustrate（举例说明）。另外，第四段第⼀句也提到，虽然专业化和专门化过程早在19世纪已在英国的地质学领域展开，但直到20世纪我们才看到其全⾯影响。这句话也是对上⼀段的总结。
B意为：业余研究者在科学研究中碰到的艰⾟。例⼦中虽然提到了专业化结业余研究者带来的不利影响．但就总体⽽⾔，这个例⼦说明的是专业化和专门化过程的形成及其影响。C意为：科技出版物出版⽅针的变化。第三段提到了科学杂志的问题（参阅第52题题解），但这显然不是例⼦旨在说明的问题。D意为：专业研究者对业余研究者的歧视。4. 【正确答案】 [C]
全⽂第⼀句指出，专门化过程可以看做是对⽇益积累的科学知识的反应。该句的含义是：科学知识的积累促进了知识的进⼀步分类和分化（或专门化）。
A不对。第⼀段第⼆、三句话的意思是，通过将研究课题分作更⼩单位，⼈们可以继续处理信息（注意：这⾥所说的
information指上⼀句中的scientific knowledge），⽤之作为进⼀步研究的基础，但是，专门化只是影响交流过程的⼀系列科学发展的⼀部分。这⾥所说的communication指科学知识的交流。B不对。专业⽐是随着知识的进⼀步分类⽽产⽣的，不是其成因。参阅第2题对选择项A的解释。D意为：学术团体的分裂。全⽂翻译：
专业化可被视为针对科学知识不断膨胀这个问题所做出的反应。通过将学科细化，个⼈能够继续处理这些不断膨胀的信息并将它们作为深⼊研究的基础。但是专业化仅是科学领域内⼀系列影响交流过程的有关现象之⼀。另⼀现象是科学活动的⽇益职业化。
在科学领域内，专业与业余之间没有绝对的区分：任何规律都有其例外。但是“业余”这个词的确具有特殊的含义，那就是所指的那个⼈没有完全融⼊某个科学家群体，具体地说，他可能并不完全认同这个群体的价值观。19世纪的专业化的发展，以及随之⽽来的对训练的长期性和复杂性的要求，对业余⼈员进⼊科学界造成了更⼤的困难。特别是在以数学和实验室训练为基础的科学领域，这种倾向⾃然尤为明显，这可以通过英国的地质学发展过程得到证实。
对过去⼀个半世纪的英国地质出版物进⾏⽐较，我们不但发现⼈们对研究的重视程度在不断增加，⽽且⼈们对可以接受的论⽂的定义也在不断变化。因此，在19世纪，局部的地质研究本⾝就可形成⼀种有价值的研究；⽽到了20世纪，如果局部的研究能够被专业⼈员接受，那么它越来越倾向于必须体现或思考更⼴阔的地质⾯貌。另⼀⽅⾯业余⼈员继续以旧的⽅式从事局部的研究。其整体的结果是使业余⼈员进⼊专业性地质学杂志更加困难，⽽审稿制度的全⾯引进使这个结果得到加强，这⼀制度开始是在19世纪的全国性杂志进⾏，进⼊20世纪后也在⼀些地⽅性地质杂志实⾏。这样发展的必然结果是出现了针对专业读者和业余读者的不同杂志。类似的分化过程也导致专业地质学家聚集起来，形成⼀两个全国性的团体，⽽业余地质学家则要么留在地⽅性团体中，要么以不同⽅式组成全国性的团体。
虽然职业化和专业化过程在19世纪的英国地质学界中已经得到迅速发展，但是它的效果直到20世纪才充分显⽰出来。然⽽，从科学这个整体来看，19世纪必须被视为科学结构发⽣变化的关键时期。
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