1.First language acquisition 第一语言习得
a)
The biological basis of language acquisition 语言习得的生物基础
Language acquisition is a genetically determined capacity that all humans are endowed with. Human is biologically programmed to acquire at least one language. Any child who is capable of acquiring some particular any human language spontaneously and effortlessly. 语言习得是全人类均具备的通过遗传而得来的能力。制，使他们至少能习得一种语言。
儿童只要能习得某种人类语言，它就能本能而轻松地习得任何人类语言。b)
Language acquisition as the acquisition of grammatical rules 语言习得即语法规则的习得
人生来就具备一种天赋，
或一种生物机
human language is capable of acquiring
Language acquisition is primarily the acquisition of the grammatical system of language. It doesn’t mean that every specific rule allowed by the grammatical system of a language must be acquired. What is actually acquired by young children are some general principle that are fundamental to the grammaticality of speech. 语言习得主要是语言的语法体系的习得。
这并不意味着必须习得一种语言的语法体系的所有
规则。儿童习得的是一些一般的原则，这些原则使口头语能合乎语法的基础。c)
The role of input and interaction 语言输入与交流的作用
Although human beings are genetically predetermined to acquire language, this genetic predisposition is not a sufficient condition for language development. For language to be eventually acquired, children must be provided with an appropriate linguistic environment which they have access to language data and opportunities to interact with the input. 虽然人的语言习得的能力是由遗传决定的，最终习得语言必须给儿童提供适当的环境，言进行交流。d)
The role of instruction 语言教学的作用
但这种先天遗传并不是语言发展的充分条件。使儿童可以接触到语言信息并有机会用输入的语
要
For the vast majority of children, language development occurs spontaneously and requires little conscious instruction. In fact, parents often fail in their attempt to teach children grammatical rules.
对绝大多数儿童而言，语言发展是本能进行的，几乎不需要成人刻意的传授。事实上，向儿童传授语法规则徒劳无益。e)
The role of correction and reinforcement 纠错与强化的作用
父母
Correction and reinforcement are not key factors in child language development. Reinforcement has been found to occur usually in children’s pronunciation or reporting of the truthfulness of utterances, rather than in the grammaticality of sentences.
纠错和强化并不是儿童语言发展的主要因素。强化通常出现在儿童的发音和转述事实方面，而不是句子的语法方面。f)
The role of imitation 模仿的作用
Selective imitation suggests that children do not blindly mimic adult speech in a parrot fashion, but rather exploit it in very restricted way to improve their linguistic skills. The point is that imitation plays at best a very minor role in the child’s mastery of language. 选择性的模仿说明，儿童不是鹦鹉学舌般地模仿成人语言，
而是对之加以有限的利用提高其
自身的语言技能。结论是，模仿在儿童的语言学习中所起的作用不大。
2.Stages of first language acquisition 第一语言习得的发展阶段
a)
The prelinguistic stage 前语言阶段
The earliest sounds produced by infants cannot be considered early language. The noises such as cries and whimpers of the new born in all language communities sound the same. Such noises are completely stimulus-controlled.
婴儿最早发出的多种声音不能算是早期的语言，都发出同样的声音。这些声音全部是应激性的。b)
The one-word stage 独词句阶段
是前语言阶段。无论哪个语言社区的新生儿
At some point in the late part of the first year or the early part of the second year, the babbling stage gradually gives way to the earliest recognizable stage of language, often referred to as the one-word stage.
在儿童接近一岁或一岁初的某个时间，咿呀学语阶段逐步被语言最早的可辨识阶段所取代，此阶段通常被称为独词句阶段。
Children’s one-word utterances are also called holophrastic sentences, because they can be used to express a concept or predication that would be associated with an entire sentence in adult speech. 儿童发出的一个词也可以被称为独词句，句话的作用。
One-word utterances sometimes show an overextension or under-extension of reference. Typically, children use the same word for things that have a similar appearance. 独词句有时表现出语义扩展过度或扩展不足的情况。述外貌相似的事物。c)
The two-word stage 双词句阶段
非常典型的是，儿童会用相同的词来描
因为它们能够表达概念或论断，
起到成人语言中一
In general, the two-word stage begins roughly in the second half of he childcertain variety of grammatical relations.
一般而言，双语句阶段大概开始于儿童一岁半到两岁期间。组合方式是多样的，通过词序表达许多不同的语法关系。
’s second year. At this
stage, children are heard uttering two-word expressions in a variety of combinations; express a
这个阶段，儿童所说的双语句的
In addition, the language at this stage begins to reflect the distinction between sentence types, such as negative sentences, imperative and questions.
除此之外，这一阶段的语言开始反映句型的区别，如否定句、祈使句和疑问句。d)
The multiword stage 多词句阶段
Between two and three years old, children begin to produce longer utterances with more complex grammatical structures. When a child starts stringing more than two words together, the utterances may be two, three, four, or five words or longer, hence the multiword stage. 儿童在两三岁的时候，开始说更长的具有更复杂语法结构的话。
当儿童的话语超过两个词后，
就出现了两词、三词、四词、五词或更长的话语，此阶段被称为多语句阶段。
The early multiword utterances typically lack inflectional morphemes and most minor lexical categories as “to”, “the”, “can”. These multiword utterances are usually the “substantive”or “content”words that carry the main message. Because of their resemblance to the style of language found in telegrams, utterances at this acquisition stage are often referred to as telegraphic speech.
儿童早期的多语句有一个典型的特点，
即缺少屈折语素和大多数的功能词，
如to/the/can等。
存在于多语句中的通常是一些表达主要信息的实词。由于这些言语与电报中的电文风格相似，所以这个习得阶段的言语经常被称为电报式言语。
Although they lack grammatical morphemes, telegraphic sentences are not simply words that are randomly strung together, but follow the principles of sentence formation. 尽管电报式言语缺少起语法作用的词素，法组合规则的。
As this type of telegram-format speech increases, a number of grammatical morphemes begin to appear in children’s speech, such as “-s”, “-ed” and prepositions. 随着这类电报式言语的增多，儿童言语中开始出现一些语法性词素，如
-s/-ed和介词等。
但它们也不是随意攒到一起的，
而是遵循一定的句
It is normally assumed that by the age of five, with an operating vocabulary of more than 2000 words, children have completed the greater part of the language acquisition process. 通常认为，儿童五岁时的有用词汇量应该超过
2000个，语言习得过程基本完成。
3.The development of the grammatical system 语法体系的发展
a)The development of phonology 音系学的发展
It’s suggested that even before children master the phonemic contrasts of their language, they begin to develop the articulatory movements needed to produce these distinctions in speech. 儿童在掌握其语言的音位对立之前，就已经开始了这些相对的音所需要的发音实践。
As they develop their native language, children must master a systematic set of patterns and learn how to fit given sounds into those patterns.
儿童在习得母语的同时，必须掌握一套系统的模式，并学会将特定的语音纳入这些模式中。
Children first acquire the sounds found in all languages of the world, no matter what language they are exposed to, and in later stage acquire the “more difficult” sounds. 儿童无论处于何种语言环境，难”的语音则在以后阶段习得。
It has been noted that certain sounds that occur in babbling are lost when children begin to speak the language, and then reappear at a later stage.
人们注意到，儿童开始说话后，一些咿呀学语阶段的语音暂时消失了，以后又会出现。b)
The development of syntax 句法的发展
他们最初习得的语音是全世界各种语言所共有的，
而一些“较
As children produce sentences that more and more closely approximate the adult grammar, they begin to use functional words as well as inflectional and derivational morphemes of the language. 随着儿童的语言越来越接近成人语法，词。c)
The development of morphology 词形的发展
他们开始使用其语言中的屈折因素、
派生词素和功能
Children’s early words are simply a bunch of bare stems without affixes. By the time they are going beyond the telegraphic stage, children’s begin to incorporate some of the inflectional morphemes which indicate the grammatical function of nouns and verbs used. –ing/-s/-ed. 儿童早期的用词仅有词干，动词语法的屈折性词素。如d)
没有词缀。到多词句阶段后，儿童开始使用一些体现所用名词和-ing/-s/-ed等。
The development of vocabulary and semantics 词汇与语义的发展
It is estimated that during the first two years, a child have a very limited vocabulary ranging from 50 to 100 words.
儿童在出生后的两年里，词汇量极为有限，一般在
50到100个单词之间。
At this stage, the semantic referent of a word expands. Overgeneralization can be observed in children’s acquisition of the semantic system, as they acquire more and more words, the “over-generalized” meaning narrows down.
在这个阶段，词义有泛指的特点。儿童习得语义体系有过度概括的情况，
随着词汇量的增长，
过度概括消除。
By the age of two and a half years, children’s vocabulary is expanding rapidly and they are actually initiating more talks. By five, childrenSix-7800
Eight-17600 (28000 if derived forms included) 两周岁半的儿童的词汇量迅速增长，六周岁时词汇量可达八周岁时词汇量可达
7800个。
17600个，若包括派生形式，则为
28000个。
他们的话语实际上也增多了。
20个。
五周岁时，儿童每句话平
均大约有4.6个单词，而且词汇的增长达到日均
’s utterances average about 4.6 words per sentence,
and their vocabulary increases by about twenty words each day.
In general, children have virtually acquired the basic fabric of their native language at the age of five or six. It is agreed that the pre-school years are a crucial period for first language acquisition. 一般来说，儿童在五六岁时，实际上已经掌握了其母语的基本结构。现在已有这样的共识：对儿童而言，学前阶段是第一语言习得的关键时期。
4.Second language acquisition 第二语言习得
a)
Acquisition and learning 习得与学习
Acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.
习得指的是日常交际环境中通过自然的运用第一语言能力而逐步地、下意识地发展这种能力。
Learning, however, is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.
而学习则被定义为在学校环境中有意识地积累第二语言知识的过程。b)
Transfer and interference 转移与干扰
Naturally, learners will subconsciously use their L1 knowledge in learning a second language. This is known as language transfer.
学习者在学第二语言的过程中总是下意识地运用第一语言的知识，这种现象叫做语言转移。Transfer can be positive or negative. Presumably, positive transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is identical with, or similar to, a target language pattern. Conversely, negative transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is different from the counterpart pattern of the target language. Negative transfer is a process more commonly known as interference. 语言转移可为正向转移，很可能出现正向转移。
也可为负向转移。如果第一语言和目的语的模式相同或相似时，相反，如果第一语言的模式和目的语中相应的模式不同时出现的就是
就
负向转移，即人们常说的干扰。
In order to identify the areas of learning difficulty, an Contrastive Analysis was developed.
inter-lingual contrastive procedure called
被称为“对
语言学家们提出一种被称为对比分析的方法来研究本族语和目的语的不同之处。比分析家”的学者认为，正向转移对第二语言学习起帮助作用，言学习起干扰作用，是造成错误的主要原因。
而负向转移学习则对第二语
It was found that a large proportion of grammatical errors could not be explained by mother tongue interference. Many actual errors are attributable to overgeneralization instead of negative transfer.
实际调查发现，有相当大比例的语法错误无法用母语干扰加以解释。过度概括而导致的。c)
Error analysis and the natural route of SLA development 发展轨道
错误分析与第二语言习得的自然
实际的许多错误是由于
The Error Analysis approach shows that there are striking similarities in the ways in which different L2 learners acquire a new language. A large proportion of developmental-type errors in learners’ L2 utterances provide support for the claim that these similarities point to a natural route of L2 development which resembles that reported for L1 development. Evidence from a number of morpheme and longitudinal studies also lend support for the claim that L2 learners follow broadly similar routes, although minor differences exist due to variable learner factors and learning situations.
错误分析方法表明，不同的第二语言学习者在习得新语言时其方法具有惊人的相似性。语言学习者所犯的很多语言发展错误表明，现了第二语言习得与第一语言习得一样，
不同的第二语言学习者在学习方法上的相似性体都有一条自然发展轨道。
一些词素和纵向研究的结
尽管由于自身的一些因素与学习环
第二
果也表明，第二语言学习者遵循着大致相同的发展轨道，境的不同，他们的语言发展轨道也存在一些细微的差别。d)
Inter-language and fossilization 语际语与语言僵化现象
SLA is viewed as a process of creative construction, in which a learner constructs a series of internal representations that comprises the learner’s interim knowledge of the target language, known as inter-language, that is, the language that a learner constructs at a given stage of SLA. 第二语言习得是一个创造性构建过程，二语言习得的某一阶段所说的语言。
Specifically, inter-language consists of a series of interlocking and approximate linguistic systems in-between and yet distinct form the learner’s native and target language. It represents the learner’s transitional competence moving along a learning continuum stretching from one’s L1 competence to the target competence.
具体地说，语际语包含一系列与本族语和目的语相关并相似的语言体系。既介于它们之间，又不同于它们的语言体系。它反映了学习者从第一语言能力向目的语语言能力的过度。
在这一过程中，学习者构建了一系列内在的表达方式，
此种知识被称为语际语，
即学习者在第
这种表达方式组成了学习者对目的语的过渡性知识，
Learner’s inter-language fossilized some way short of target language competence while the internalized rule system contained rules that are different from those of the target language system. The fossilization of the learner’s inter-language is believed to be a major source of incorrect forms resistant to further instruction.
学习者的语际语在未到达目的语言能力时，语语言体系所包含的规则不尽相同。式的不可救药的主要原因。e)
The role of input 语言输入的作用
就发生了僵化，此时其内在化的规则体系与目的
据认为，学习者语际语的僵化现象是导致错误的语言形
It is evident that SLA takes place only when the learner has access to L2 input and the opportunity to interact with the input.
很明显，学习者只有接受到第二语言输入并有机会纳入输入信息时，f)
The role of formal instruction 正规教学的作用
才能进行第二语言习得。
A great number of adults learn a second language through formal instruction. Formal instruction occurs in classrooms when attempts are made to raise learner’s consciousness about the nature of target language rules in order to aid learning. 大多数成年人通过正规教学来学习第二语言。
正规教学就是教师在课堂上设法提高学习者对
目的语语言规则的特点的认识，从而帮助他们学习第二语言。
Although it is found that formal instruction hardly affects the natural route of SLA, it does provide opportunities to receive comprehensible input, and in so doing enables the classroom learner to perform a wide range of linguistic tasks than the naturalistic learner and thereby accelerates the rate of acquisition.
尽管正规教学对第二语言习得的自然发展轨道的影响微乎其微，输入信息提供了机会，而加快语言习得的进度。
Studies suggest that formal instruction may not easily influence a particular type of language task, such as casual and spontaneous conversation, but it may help learners perform other types of tasks, such as those associated with planned speech, writing or career-oriented examination. 研究表明，正规教学对一种特殊的语言学习任务，
如自然随意的对话影响不大，
但却有助于
学习者完成其它学习任务，如有准备的发言、写作或职业考试。g)
Individual learner factors 学习者的个人因素
但它却为接受可理解的语言
从
这样就使得课堂学习者比自然学习者能完成更多的语言学习任务，
It is known that there is no uniform way in which learners acquire the knowledge of a second language. There are a number of factors pertaining to the learner that potentially influence the way in which a second language is acquired. The learner factors include age, aptitude, motivation, personality, and cognitive style. 学习者在习得第二语言知识时，
没有统一的方式，这一点已成定论。可能影响第二语言习得
方式以及和学习者自己有关的因素有很多，主要包括：年龄、领悟力、学习动机、个性以及认知方式。
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